Amateur (Ham) Radio
A Quick Start Focusing on the Relevant Stuff

By "KK7YIZ, Gregor in Albany" version 2026.3.23

Use of amateur radio frequencies requires licensing with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). In my opinion, the exam for the most basic level of ham radio certification (Technician class) includes a lot of material that is irrelevant to real day-to-day operations of radios, such as identifying electrical components and calculating electrical load for a power supply, while omitting material that is useful for real-world operations, such as participating in a net and finding local radio clubs and repeaters.

This quick start guide focuses on the really useful stuff that you need to get on the air. My own interest is specifically regional communications on 2 meter and 70 centimeter bands, using handheld radios that fit my go-bag, for emergency communications. This necessarily misses a lot more detail and nuance in what can become a very detailed and very nuanced hobby, science, and art. If you are really interested in radio, particularly the long distance that HF/General offers, this guide barely scratches that surface and you'll want to look elsewhere for a more comprehensive guide.

This is organized with licensing at the start, then communication, then the more technical details. So if you don't know a term described in the front, you can put a pin in it and I'll explain later, or skip ahead to find out what it means. This makes the reading a lot more enjoyable than putting all of the megahertz decibel cable connectors stuff up front, where you'll be bored before we get to the fun stuff. I do repeat myself in parts, when I feel that a point is important and relevant to multiple topics.

Certification and Licensing Process

Why Certification?

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is the international body that coordinates radio frequency usage. Coordination is important because some frequencies/wavelengths can span the globe (literally; a 200 watt station can circle the entire globe and hear its own echo), and interference can disrupt real-world functions such as satellites and emergency communications. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is the USA's member agency of the ITU, governing the use of radio within the USA.

There are three levels of certificate / license for amateur radio:

  • Technician. Allowed to use UHF and VHF frequencies, most notably the 2 meter and 70 centimeter bands, These bands are suitable for regional communications, basically to the horizon, but do not exhibit ionospheric propagation so not suited to round-the-world communication.
  • General. Allowed to use HF frequencies, 3 MHz to 30 MHz (100 meter to 10 meter). These frequencies exhibit ionospheric propagation and can circle the world, given a sufficiently large antenna and power. When you think of hams talking to people around the world, this is that.
  • Plus. Allowed even more frequencies within the amateur radio bands.

The exams required to get the license are administered by volunteer examiners (VEs), usually through a local radio club.

Do I Have To?

Can you get away with just talking on the air without being licensed? Sometimes, but not for long, and the penalties mean it's not worth it. Depending on the trouble you cause, fines can be thousands of dollars, and civil actions could be brought by other radio operators if you caused interference or disturbances.

Hams can be busybodies, and they tend to self-police so as to avoid the need for further enforcement by the FCC. Triangulating the location of a transmitter ("fox hunting") is a game/sport for radio nerds, so you can count on being found if you become trouble.

Contrary to rumor, there is not an exception allowing one to transmit on amateur radio without a license in the case of an emergency. In any case, a longer-term crisis often does not fit the definition of an emergency for purposes of ignoring laws.

If you are unwilling to register with the FCC, you should stick with unlicensed radio usage such as CB, FRS, and MURS.

Fine, How Do I Get Licensed?

To get licensed as a ham:

  1. Create an account with the FCC CORES (COmmission Registration System) and take note of your FRN (FCC Registration Number) for later.
  2. Study at hamstudy.org, memorizing the flash cards. Unlike most exams, for the amateur radio exams these are the literal Q&A on the real exam and you can pass with straight memorization. I don't normally condone flat memorization and I believe in really understanding the material, but in this case, it is my opinion that the entry-level exam has a poor match to what you really need to know.
  3. Find your local radio club, often an ARES (Amateur Radio Emergency Service) affiliate, and sign up for their next exam. You can also find online exams where a group of volunteers will watch your camera and screen. Most often, the local in-person exams are free and the online ones usually cost a small charge like $15. You will provide your FRN when you sign up for the exam, and you will need photo ID.
  4. The volunteer examiners (VEs) will submit a note to the FCC that you have passed the exam.
  5. A few days later you will receive an invoice from the FCC. In 2025 the cost is $35.
  6. Your callsign will be issued within 3 to 5 days.Upon receiving that, you are officially licensed.

Amateur radio licensing is good for ten years from the day your callsign was issued. After that time, until you renew you will be transmitting illegally. You can renew a few months in advance of the expiration, and I recommend doing so, since the requirements may change by then and you may need to schedule a test or a fee or some other paperwork.

After expiration, there is a two year grace period to simply renew your license by paying the fee. If you let it go past that 12-year mark, your license completely expires, and you will need to start over. I strongly recommend setting a calendar reminder so you don't forget.

There is no requirement to print, display, or carry a copy of your license. Simply knowing your callsign is enough.

You will be asked for your address and your email address to sign up with CORES. The email address is required to be accurate, as that is how you will sign in to renew your license. But your address will be public information. See notes below about privacy and safety.

Your Callsign

Your callsign will be issued by the FCC. Unlike CB radio, you don't get to informally use any nickname - you must use the callsign you are given.

Callsigns are Geographic and Sequential

Callsigns are structured, and consist of a prefix and a suffix, for example: KK7YIZ.

Prefix: W for east of the Mississippi River, K for west of it, then a number based on geographic region. Most of the west coast is under K7. You can look up maps of these regions to get an idea where somebody was when they got their license.

The prefix of "just" K and W filled up a century ago, and nowadays they have sequential letters added to the K or W. These letters are also sequential: KA7AAA through KA7ZZZ, then on to KB7AAA through KB7ZZZ, then on to KC7, ... As of 2025, the K7 zone was into KK7Z so by now they are surely into the KL7 prefixes.

Suffix: The unique three-letter part of your callsign.

Callsigns are assigned sequentially. My friends took the exam on the same day and sat next to each other, handed in their papers together, and got sequential call signs, so that's a fun thing you can do. Getting a feel for other folks' callsigns can also clue you in to who's a long-timer and who's new.

Vanity callsigns are also a thing. For an additional charge, you can have the FCC issue you a chosen callsign, within some specific allowed formats. For example, a man named Ron got a callsign ending in RON, and another got KK1A which he pronounces "K K 1, eh?".

Your Callsign, Privacy and Safety

Amateur radio callsigns are public record, and that public record includes your name and address. The ARRL.org website is just one place where you can look up someone's callsign.

Just to be very clear, I'll repeat it: When you announce your callsign on the air, or you have a vanity license plate or window sticker with your callsign, that callsign can be punched into public databases to get your name and address.

Because of this, you may want to give a P.O. Box or a neutral address to FCC CORES.

Also, after you first get license, you will get a bunch of paper-mail spam from magazines and non-profits and some local radio clubs wanting donations. That tapers off quickly.

Remember: You are required to state your callsign at the start of communication, at the end of communication, and every ten minutes during communication.

Communication and Etiquette

Keep it civil.

Even a handheld radio transmits 20-30+ miles in every direction.

Hams are busybodies and really do listen randomly or constantly in case something comes in.

Transmissions are not encrypted, and your must identify yourself by giving your callsign.

Together, this means that everything you say is very public. So, again, keep it civil.

Use Your Callsign

Announcing your callsign. You must announce your callsign at the start of communication, at the end of communication, and every 10 minutes throughout. This isn't often done as a formal announcement or a break in the conversation, just saying it out loud and moving on, practically a throw-away that everybody else will ignore. See the section about talking on the air, where I give an example of some real-world radio talk.

Starting or Joining a Conversation

Hams love to chat. They bought or built all this gear for chatting, and you're making their day. You're not an interruption, you're the reason the hobby exists.

If you are not using a repeater (simplex frequency). First, listen for a moment to see whether the frequency is already in use, that you wouldn't just talk right over someone else. Announce "CQ, CQ, this is KK7YZE" and see who calls back. If it's urgent, "CQD urgent, CQD urgent, this is KK7YZE"

If you're using a repeater. First, listen for a moment to see whether the frequency is already in use, that you wouldn't just talk right over someone else. Then, for some reason they don't say "CQ" on repeaters, but "listening" or "monitoring" and you also put your callsign first. So you would say "KK7YZE listening" or "KK7YZE monitoring" and just see who calls back.

If you want to talk to someone specifically, start by announcing their callsign, then yours "KK7YZE this is KK7YIZ. Are you there?"

If two folks are conversing and you want to join in, wait for a natural break or lull, then simply announce your callsign. They'll notice and call back, asking what's up. They won't be surprised that someone was listening; that's life on the air. This is not rude and you're not interrupting. This is OG chatting and the reason the hobby exists.

If folks are conversing and you need to break in because of an emergency, say "Break" a few times. That will get their attention, then they will likely ask for your callsign and what's up.

If you're participating in a net, then you mostly speak when invited. I describe that more in another section. In the event of an emergency worth disrupting the meeting, you can announce "Break" and net control will ask what's up.

When you're done talking, don't forget to announce your callsign one last time. This is often done at the same time as you announce that you're clearing the frequency. Simply saying "KK7YIZ Clear" achieves both, by announcing your closing callsign and also letting others know that you're done talking and the frequency is clear.

Get Involved

Find your local radio clubs. Listening is how you'll learn how people really talk, as well as who is out there, and how far you can reach.

Amateur Radio Emergency Service (ARES) are local organizations, sometimes in coordination with local law enforcement, search & rescue, or fire department, who maintain amateur radio infrastructure for use during a crisis. This infrastructure usually involves repeaters funded by the club or by private donations, as well as the volunteers who repair the repeaters, and who own radios to communicate and pass messages in a crisis. Many ARES organizations are also the go-to for training and licensing.

Even if you don't intend to nerd out and build radios in a club, these clubs are who maintain the repeaters and organize discussions ("nets") so it's good to know the clubs relevant to you, to look up local resources including equipment, repeater settings, and on-air discussion groups ("nets").

Some Lingo

The ITU Phonetic Alphabet is those alphabet letter words you hear in movies (Alpha, Bravo, etc), which are distinct enough to make out letters and spelling over fuzzy or broken communications. Memorize the phonetic alphabet - you will use it for reading off your callsign and hearing others announce theirs. Specifically use the ITU phonetic alphabet and not what you hear in movies - L is Lima not Lincoln, and B is Bravo not Baker.

Q Codes and other lingo. Every hobby has lingo, and radio derives directly from telegraphy, so has traditions and lingo going back 150 years. A few highlights:

  • 73. Hello, good day/evening, friendly greeting.
  • 5 and 9. A signal report where their voice is perfectly audible (5) and the signal is strong (9). In movies they say "loud and clear." You can read more about the two numbers in a signal report, somewhere else.
  • A double is when two people transmit at the same time. Listeners can get a jumble of both syllables, or hear one transmission with a weird echo sound to it.
  • QST. An announcement, bulletin, or news for the group.
  • CQ. To anybody listening; is anybody out there? Can also be CQD meaning "anybody out there, this is urgent."
  • POTA. Parks On The Air. Taking radios out to the park or similar, for a day of playing with radios while also getting fresh air and sunlight. Often done as a social event.
  • An Elmer is a ham who helps other hams, especially new ones. Don't be a gatekeeper, be an Elmer.
  • QRP. Low power, really anything under 50 watts. This basically includes all handhelds.
  • YL. Young Lady, meaning woman or wife. Can also be XYL for wife (no longer a young lady). Mostly used by older men, but useful to know its meaning. For instance, there is a women's radio group named "YL Salem."

An Example Conversation

KK7YIZ: "KK7YZE this is KK7YIZ. Are you there?" KK7YZE: "KK7YIZ this is KK7YZE. Hey, it's good to hear from you! How are things?" (chat continues for 9 minutes, nearing the 10 minute mark to announce callsigns again) KK7YIZ: "Oh man. We gotta do that this year. KK7YIZ." KK7YZE: "You bet. Count me in. KK7YZE. I'll be on break the second week of next month. Does that work?" (chat continues, winds down) KK7YZE: "Catch you later. KK7YZE Clear." KK7YIZ: "73. KK7YIZ Clear."

Disallowed Communication

  • Broadcasting and one-way transmissions. That is, transmitting to "whomever is out there." The intent is conversations, not spam nor monologues. There is an exception for warning people of imminent harm, such as a broadcasting that a tornado is coming.
  • Commercial activity. A bit fuzzy by design. Offering to sell your gear during a conversation is okay, and there are "swap nets" where people do that, and mentioning your Etsy store in conversation is fine, but repeating ads for your Etsy store is not. Using amateur radio for a commercial job site is not allowed; that's what FRS and GMRS are for.
  • Transmitting music. Yes, really. A special exception had to be made to transmit a recording of Happy Birthday to the space station.
  • Indecent or threatening material. Letting "oh shit" slip is one thing, threats and slurs and explicit sexual material are another. This also includes threatening, planning, or organizing illegal activities - but again, radio is public so that would be daft anyway.
  • Encryption and codes. You can buy DMR radios which support encryption, but it is illegal to use that feature on amateur radio frequencies. This also includes "messages encoded for the purpose of obscuring their meaning" so if you do have keywords arranged with your family, you'll have to make them sound like regular content and not sound like a spy sending a secret message.
  • Communication with countries that specifically request the ITU to forbid ham radio. At present, there are no countries on this list, and for regional communications using 2 meter and 70 centimeter FM, this is a non-issue.

Nets

What is a Net?

A "net" is a meeting via radio, usually conducted on a recurring schedule. They are conducted in a more formal fashion than person-to-person talking, because they are intended to be a meeting of a dozen or more people, and a free-for-all would be total chaos.

A net can be organized on a repeater or on a simplex frequency, again depending on the net's needs and purpose. Nets held on a repeater have a larger area of participation, though a very local group such as a neighborhood response team may specifically want the smaller area for a hyperlocal focus, and/or to specifically test their equipment and communication without relying on repeaters.

Nets commonly follow message handling standards and are directed nets, meaning that the "net controller" will open by announcing the net, then will invite people to check in for a time to speak, then will invite each speaker when it's their turn. This avoids the utter chaos if 10-20 people all tried to speak at once.

The process is usually pretty close to this:

  • At the appointed time, the net controller or net control comes on air and reads the preamble, which announces that this is a net, and the purpose of the net, and often more information such as intended audience, how often they meet, and what frequency or repeater they use (in case someone stumbled across this by accident).
  • Net control invites callers to check in by giving their callsign and often their name and location. Every net is different as to the order of their check-ins: some go by region, some alphabetically, some ask for anybody who has news to check in first. Just follow everybody else's lead and feel it out.
  • Net control will invite people to speak one by one, based on whether they said they had any announcements or news to share. Some net controls, especially chat nets with few attendees, can be more free-form and ask anyone to chime in who has comments or news.
  • When it is your turn to speak, start with your callsign then say what you have to say. You don't have to start every sentence with it, just your part of the conversation. When you're done talking, it is not customary to say "Clear" if it's obvious that you're done and someone else gets to talk.
  • Net control may invite late check-ins as well.
  • When the conversation wraps up, net control will usually make one last call for late check-ins or final thoughts, and then close the net which simply means declaring the meeting over.

What Do They Talk About?

The content of nets varies widely. Some nets are mostly for emergency preparedness, where the whole net is check-ins and there may or may not be one announcement. Some nets are very chatty, where every few sentences is an invitation for anyone else to comment or to change the subject. Just go with the flow.

Almost all nets are open to new attendees, though a few are very topic specific, such as local emergency response people having a net. Still, listening is free and expected, and you'll gather from context whether you're invited to join in.

But I Don't Want to Talk to Strangers

Regularly scheduled nets are a golden opportunity to test your equipment, and determine how far and how clearly you can send and receive with your current gear. It's best to test your communication equipment before a disaster or crisis.

Nets are also an organizing place in case of a crisis. An established net can be also a good, pre-arranged time and frequency to check in with your friend group, as well as to catch up on regional news, allowing you to conserve battery power instead of listening 24x7 in case something comes in.

And if you don't like talking to strangers, you can start your own net. It really is as simple as deciding on a regular time and frequency/repeater, and inviting people into it. You don't need permission or anything, and a lot of repeaters are silent 99% of the time. Just don't be surprised if strangers pop up from time to time - it is a public chat medium, after all.

Using Repeaters

A repeater is a radio which listens on one frequency, then re-transmits what it receives on a second frequency. Repeaters are often placed on towers on hills, to put the largest area within their "field of view." A handheld radio transmitting at 5 or 8 watts can reach 10-30 miles depending on terrain, then the repeater at 50 watts can repeat that signal to 60-100 miles depending on elevation and terrain. From my house in Albany, I can reach the K7CVO repeater on Chatimanwi (Marys Peak), which re-transmits to both sides of the coast range, extending my reach to Eugene, Newport, and Salem and over a mountain range that would otherwise have blocked me from sending or receiving with these areas.

Any radio traffic that is not done via a repeater is called simplex traffic. Simplex is the simplest form of communication: simply tune the radios to the same frequency, listen to make sure you're not interrupting anyone, and start talking. But with repeaters it's a little more complicated.

Offset

A repeater does not send and receive on the same frequency - it would only hear itself. Repeaters listen on one frequency and re-transmit on another frequency. This difference is called the offset or transmit offset.

The frequency that you program into your radio is the repeater's transmit frequency (or downlink frequency), so you can hear what the repeater is sending out. To send back on the repeater's receive frequency (or uplink frequency), you will also need to know the repeater's offset as well.

Common offsets are:

  • VHF (2 meter), the offset is commonly +0.600 MHz (positive offset) or -0.600 MHz (negative offset).
  • UHF (70 centimeter), the offset is commonly +5 MHz (positive offset) or -5 MHz (negative offset).

Fortunately, you don't usually need to program both frequencies manually, but you program the repeater's transmit frequency (where you listen) and then program the offset through the menus, and the radio will do the math and will automagically switch back and forth when you are listening and when you are transmitting.

A repeater's offset would be noted in it's listing on whatever website you found it, such as the radio club which manages it.

Tone: CTCSS and DCS

A lot of things can generate radio noise, and nobody wants a repeater re-transmitting some burst of static to everybody within 50 miles. To filter out noise, repeaters and radios can embed an access tone (or simply tone) into the signal, and ignore any incoming signal that does not have that embedded tone.

Tones can come in either of two flavors: CTCSS and DCS (also called DTCS).

  • CTCSS is expressed as a frequency tone, such as "156.7 Hz." CTCSS is an actual audible sound that your radio will mix in to the signal before sending it.
  • DCS is expressed as a three-digit number such as "026." DCS is a digital code that is sent along with your transmission.

You will need to set your radio to transmit the tone that the repeater expects, a setting often called "transmit CTCSS" or "transmit DCS." On some websites such as RepeaterBook.com they call this the "uplink tone."

Receive CTCSS/DCS: You can configure your radio's "receive CTCSS" or "receive DCS" to similarly filter out extraneous signals, any noise which does not contain the specified tone/code. For example, repeaters will announce their callsign every few minutes, and some also beep when a message is sent through them (a "courtesy tone"). These extra sounds are often sent without the tone, while the voice transmissions are sent with the tone, so setting your receive CTCSS/DCS can filter those out those distractions. I don't use this, myself - many repeaters don't make that distinction so it's not very useful.

CTCSS and DCS are not privacy codes and they are not security - they are to help filter out noise.

Courtesy Tone

Many repeaters will send out a beep called a courtesy tone after they receive a transmission, to let the sender know that they have been heard. That's the point of it - so you can tell whether the repeater heard you, and that you can hear the repeater, without a second person who happens to be listening and able to respond.

Wait a Second Before Talking

A repeater can take a second to switch between transmitting and receiving, so after you hit the talk button, wait a second before speaking. Otherwise, a syllable or word may get cut off.

Who Manages Repeaters and Where Do I Find Them?

Repeaters can be maintained by a variety of people are agencies:

  • Local emergency service organizations
  • A radio club
  • A private individual enthusiast

RepeaterBook is possibly the most go-to place to find repeaters. However, RepeaterBook is often wrong, not due to a failing on their part but because of the anarchistic nature of radio - anyone can set up a repeater at any time without a need to register it, an organization may lose funding, or an individual maintainer may die or move away. As such, do not simply program in every repeater and assume that they all work, and do not assume that every repeater out there is listed.

For the best information, put in the trouble of looking up local radio clubs in your county and the surrounding counties, then visit their websites. These radio clubs will have the most up-to-date information, as well as listings for any regularly scheduled nets.

Example: The K7CVO repeater run by Benton County ARES

The listing at https://www.repeaterbook.com/repeaters/details.php?state_id=41&ID=14 gives:

  • Frequency = 146.780 MHz
  • Offset = -0.600
  • Tone = 156.7
  • The approximate location of the repeater
  • A link to http://www.bcares.org/frequencies.html where the radio club gives more information including regularly scheduled tests and nets and other club activities such as license classes and testing

Signal Strength and Squelch

Squelch: Filtering Out Static

When a radio is not receiving a signal, there is static. What is static? The universe is full of radio signals, from the stars and from automotive ignition systems and from radios far away, so there's always a little something on every frequency, and static is the sound of all of it put together. But we don't want to hear static, just signal.

A radio's squelch setting determines how strong a signal needs to be before the radio will pass it on to the speaker. A lower squelch means that a weaker signal will be passed through, while a higher squelch requires a stronger signal to break through.

For the most part, I recommend always using the lowest squelch. A higher squelch would be appropriate if we were all trying to use the same radio frequencies, and other radios miles away were edging in and interfering. Much more commonly, our situation is the opposite and we would like even weaker signals to come in.

Decibels, A Relative Measurement of Strength

Signal strength is measured in decibels. and is relative to some other reference (the background noise of the universe's radio emissions). The bel system is a logarithmic scale, where 1 bel (10 decibels) means a 10X increase or 10X decrease in the strength of a signal, relative to that baseline.

  • 10 dB higher = ten times as strong
  • 6 dB higher = four times as strong
  • 3 dB higher = twice as strong
  • 0 dB = same strength
  • 3 dB lower = half as strong
  • 6 dB lower = one fourth as strong
  • 10 dB lower = one tenth as strong

For example, an antenna may claim a 3 dB gain. This means that the received signal will be about twice what it would be using a different antenna that they used for reference (usually a "dipole").

As another example, a cable from your outdoor antenna into your house may exhibit a loss of 3 db per 100 feet - meaning that a 300 foot run would drop about 9 dB, a loss of some 80% of the signal strength.

Decibels and sound. Decibels for radio strength are the same as when talking about sound volume. When the scale was invented, a "barely audible" reference sound was decided to be 0, then sound waves are 10X stronger than that for every 10 decibels. Yes, a sound can even be negative decibels if it is quieter than that reference sound.

Squelch Levels and Decibels

Squelch is measured in decibels, for example requiring that a signal be 10X as strong as (10 dB higher than) the background noise. However, most radios simply have a selection of 1 (little squelching, allowing weak signals) through 9 (extreme squelch, you'll never hear a thing). Few radios allow you to define what each squelch level means in terms of decibels.

As I said above, I see little point in any setting other than the lowest. In fact, even the lowest squelch level of many radio is stil too much squelch, and you can miss signals that would be audible even if a little faint. If you radio lets you change what the squelch levels mean (check in CHIRP, as this is not usually available via the radio's menus), I recommend changing the squelch numbers to much lower decibel values. Squelch level 1 often defaults to 10 dB, which excludes plenty of signals that would otherwise be audible at a distance. I recommend that squelch level 1 be as little as 1 or 2 dB, with the other levels being 3, 5, 7, 9, and so on.

Programming Your Radio

Broadly speaking, there are three ways to program your radio:

Using the Menus on the Radio

Every radio is different, so we can't go into what menu to punch up on your radio. Some radios have nicely labelled menus, while others have cryptic names and values so you'll need the manual to decipher them.

You really should be familiar with your radio's menus and how to configure both simplex frequencies and repeaters. But for programming in a lot of memory slots, this is really time-consuming and very annoying. It also does not leave an external backup in case your radio breaks, taking all of your settings with it. As such, I recommend using an external software for most programming.

Still, program a channel or two in your menus for practice, then keep the manual close. In a crisis you may not have the laptop handy when you need to program a new channel or repeater.

The Vendor's Customer Programming Software (CPS)

Radio manufacturers will have some software for programming their radios. These usually are made only for Windows and MacOS computers, and rarely for smartphones or for Linux. They often gives a nice tabular interface for programming a lot of channels at a time, and for moving and copying them, or saving all of your radio's settings as a backup. Most CPSs also allow you to edit settings on the radio, not just the memory slots.

CPSs are almost always specific to one manufacturer, and usually to one model or one model line. If you have two radios by different manufacturers, you may have two different softwares and may or may not be able to copy-paste settings between them.

Using a CPS usually requires a cable to connect your radio to your computer, and most times the radios do not include this cable by default. I highly recommend buying a programming cable.

Using CHIRP

CHIRP is a radio programming software much like the proprietary CPS described above, except it works with thousands of makes and models of radio. It also runs perfectly well on Linux. You can even load channel settings from one radio and copy-paste them into another radio of a different make and model. For some radios, CHIRP can edit settings that the manufacturer's CPS leaves out, such as what the squelch levels mean.

Using CHIRP usually requires a cable to connect your radio to your computer, and most times the radios do not include this cable by default. I highly recommend buying a programming cable.

Some Frequencies to Memorize or Program

The National Calling Frequencies

All regional band plans will set these frequencies aside for general voice use using FM. If you don't know your local repeaters and need to shout out for help, these are frequencies where folks will probably be listening.

  • 446.000 MHz on the 70 centimeter (UHF) band
  • 146.520 MHz on the 2 meter (VHF) band

NOAA Weather Channels

NOAA constantly transmits weather conditions and forecasts on the following frequencies:

  • 162.400 MHz
  • 162.425 MHz
  • 162.450 MHz
  • 162.475 MHz
  • 162.500 MHz
  • 162.525 MHz
  • 162.550 MHz

GMRS and FRS Frequencies

GMRS and FRS are those walkie-talkie radios you can buy anywhere. These have a very short range and are often used for hyperlocal communications such as events and work sites. In a crisis these hyperlocal frequencies may have interesting traffic relevant to your neighborhood, such as volunteer emergency services and families checking in with each other.

These use specific, well-documented frequencies.

Channel Frequency
Channel 1462.5625 MHz
Channel 2462.5875 MHz
Channel 3462.6125 MHz
Channel 4462.6375 MHz
Channel 5462.6625 MHz
Channel 6462.6875 MHz
Channel 7462.7125 MHz
Channel 8467.5625 MHz
Channel 9467.5875 MHz
Channel 10467.6125 MHz
Channel 11467.6375 MHz
Channel 12467.6625 MHz
Channel 13467.6875 MHz
Channel 14467.7125 MHz
Channel 15462.5500 MHz
Channel 16462.5750 MHz
Channel 17462.6000 MHz
Channel 18462.6250 MHz
Channel 19462.6500 MHz
Channel 20462.6750 MHz
Channel 21462.7000 MHz
Channel 22462.7250 MHz

Most handheld radios can listen to these frequencies, but many are software locked to not transmit on them. If your radio can transmit on them, note that it is not really legal to transmit on GMRS and FRS without a radio specifically labelled for that use because amateur radios can exceed the channel width and wattage requirements built into those limited-purpose radios. If you intend to try it, turn down your transmit power to 2 W or less.

Local First Responder Frequencies

Many first responder agencies still use voice over FM because of its universal compatibility, instead of coded digital signals on special bands. In many areas, you can look up the frequencies used by your local fire department, police, search & rescue, and so on, then program them into your radio to listen in.

It would be super illegal to transmit on these frequencies even if your radio can.

Your Local Repeaters

Find out about your local radio clubs and ARES clubs, and program those repeaters and frequencies into your radio. This is particularly true of those which host nets where you can check in to hear local news or communicate with your friends.

Print a Copy

Having a printed copy of your favorite frequencies and repeaters in your go bag, can be quite a saver. If you break your radio or the battery conks out, but you acquire a second radio, it won't necessarily have your same settings.

Radio Hardware: Buying a Radio and Antenna

When buying a radio, you should make sure you get everything you need:

I will also describe specific radios and antennas that I own or have owned, and my thoughts on them. My primary interest (and what I can afford) is a kit suitable to take on a hike or a camping trip, soo exclusively handheld radios plus a car antenna. But it's a big world out there and there are thousands of other radios and antennas that will work for you, depending on whether you intend to operate from home, from a car, or from a backpack.

Radio

A popular radio manufacturer is Baofeng, aka B-Tech, on account of their low price point.

There is surprisingly little difference between an expensive radio and an inexpensive radio. The real difference is how "clean" the radio signal is; that is, how much the radio transmits only within the expected 20 kHz frequency variance versus also transmitting noise outside that range, and how much it can filter out neighboring frequencies which are likewise generating noise (selectivity). In reality, we don't live with neighboring ham radio channels that are constantly in use, with every single 20 kHz frequency interfering with the neighboring 20 kHz frequency, so in my opinion a "dirty" signal isn't so bad.

More important to me are:

  • decent battery life
  • whether the battery needs a special charger or can charge with standard outlets or USB
  • user interface: the menus being easy to use and the screen being easy to read
  • "dual watch", the ability to listen on multiple channels at once
  • at least 50 memory slots
  • GPS, so I can tell someone my coordinates if I'm in the wild

Baofeng BF8HP and UV5R

These two radios are virtually identical, with only minor changes to the case.

Battery life is a couple of days of just listening, or several hours of transmit time. Batteries can only be charged with a proprietary charger for this make and model.

They have 100 memory slots to save settings.

They support dual watch, meaning that they can be set to two channels/frequencies, and it will listen on both. Meanwhile, you select between A and B as to which one will be chosen when you transmit.

It is not possible to see a channel's name and frequency at the same time, so the user experience isn't great. Usually I have it show the name, and I guess that's what really matters. Channel names are limited to 8 characters, so you have to get creative about naming your slots and then remembering what your slots' names mean.

The menus are not great, being a bunch of cryptic codes like "SFT-D" meaning "repeater offset, select plus or minus" but the manual is very detailed.

Their antenna connector is SMA Female (SMA-F) and they use standard K1 pins for their headset plug, which is also the data cable plug.

A very useful feature of these is that using CHIRP you can define what the squelch levels mean (on the BF8HP, I don't know about the UV5R). With the squelch set down to 1 dB, my BF8HP can receive fringe signals that my BFhHP-Pro cannot.

Baofeng BF8HP-Pro

This is somewhat larger and heavier than the BF8HP, with a sturdier build quality, and feels like you could use it in a fistfight. I have dropped mine repeatedly. It is also water resistant as long as the earpiece/data port is covered up with its rubber seal.

Battery life is a couple of days of just listening, or several hours of transmit time. Batteries can be charged with their own charger, or with USB-C. This latter could come in handy in a crisis, if wall power is out or you didn't bring the charger.

It can store 1,000 channels in memory, broken into 10 banks/regions and 100 channels per bank. Organizing your frequencies into banks can be very useful if you travel and have a different set of repeaters in the Willamette Valley than in the Eastern Oregon Desert - it saves a lot of scrolling through irrelevnt channels.

The user interface is very nice, with a color screen that shows the channel's frequency and name at the same time, and with menus that are easy to understand.

It also supports dual watch like the Bf8HP.

It has GPS, so you can read off your coordinates. This could be useful for a lost/wilderness scenario.

The antenna connector is SMA Female (SMA-F) and they use standard K1 pins for their headset plug, which is also the data cable plug.

The BF8HP-Pro does not allow for squelch levels to be adjusted in CHIRP, and the default decibel level for squelch level 1 is higher than I would like. As a result, my BF8HP-Pro cannot receive some fringe signals that my BF8HP can.

Antenna

The antenna is arguably more important than the radio itself. Radios usually include a stubby or rubber duck antenna that is useful for short-range communication at an event, but not suitable for longer distances such as when camping or wanting to communicate to another city.

I have a few antennas for different use cases: holding the radio in my hand, having it connected to a rooftop antenna at my house, and using it in the car.

Make sure that you're shopping antennas that match your radio's antenna connector, or that you also get appropriate adapters. Almost all handhelds use a SMA-Female (SMA-F) plug, requiring a SMA-Male (SMA-M) connector on the antenna.

Handheld: Nagoya NA-771

This is perhaps the most common replacement antenna for use with handhelds.

Its shorter length (16") and thicker build allow it to fit into a backpack, unlike the SignalStick. However, it's still too long when you're wearing the radio on your chest, because it can get close to the eyes.

When I don't need the radio on my chest, this is my favorite handheld antenna.

Handheld: SignalStick

The SignalStick dual-band antenna is 19" long and very thin and wavy, making it a feel little clumsy. It's definitely not great when you're wearing your radio on your chest, and does not fit into a backpack. The thinness also feels like it's not as durable, so I take care when packing it for a trip so as not to bend it, and I wouldn't risk bending it by putting it into a backpack even if it would fit.

However, the length gives it great reception. If I can lay it out flat in car, this would be my campsite antenna, if not my backpack antenna. But for day to day use, it's a bit too much to carry around.

Bonus: They are available in a variety of colors.

Bonus Bonus: SignalStuff is a sponsor of hamstudy.org so supporting them is good for the amateur radio community.

Camping/Home: N9TAX Slim Jim Portable J Pole

This collapsible antenna is meant to be portable such as camping and backpacking. It rolls down to about the size of a pair of socks and weighs very little. It unrolls to about three feet in length, with the idea being that you would then hook it to a tree (non-metallic hook, or string). It can't really be used while moving, but if you're in one place and can get it up a tree, this antenna gets stronger transmission and reception than any of the handheld antennas.

It has a Type N connector, so you will need an adapter to connect it to most handhelds which use SMA-F.

At home, I have this antenna on top of a TN07 collapsible antenna mast. This pole collapses down to three feet in length and weighs less than a laptop (it's made of fiberglass), then extends to about 30 feet in height. It's meant for camping/portable use, but I use it at home since I cannot afford a real 200-foot metal tower. Using this inexpensive collapsible pole, I can communicate clearly to repeaters over 40 miles away, except for the ones with the Salem Hills in the way.

Car: Larsen NMO 270B and Magnetic NMO base

Cars generate radio frequency interference, and also are metal boxes that interfere with radio transmission and reception. As such, using your portable antenna inside the car when it's turned on is usually not going to work. (I mean while sitting with the heater on, never while driving!) Instead, you'll need an external antenna.

This usually consists of three or four parts:

  • The antenna itself, which most commonly uses a NMO-Female connector.
  • A base with a NMO-Male connector which is attached to the car. This can be magnetic, or with screws into the car's metal.
  • A cable from the base into your car, e.g. through a cracked window or a drilled hole, and to the radio.
  • The cable from the base is usually a Type N, and if your radio is a handheld using SMA-Female then you will need an adapter.

The Larsen NMO270B dual-band antenna came recommended in various forums, and I am pleased with it. I am also pleased with the no-name magnetic base, which was rated at 75 pounds of force and which stays on just fine at freeway speeds. (Don't radio while driving!)

Putting a magnetic piece of metal on your car can scratch the paint. You can put a piece of cloth under it to prevent this, but then I wouldn't trust it at freeway speeds.

More about Antennas

The antenna is arguably more important than the radio itself, and above I described my own shopping list. But there is a little more you should know about antennas.

Shopping for Antennas

Antennas are built to work best on certain bands, so you'll see listings for 2 meter antennas and 70 centimeter antennas, as well as dual band antennas which work on both 2 meter and 70 centimeter. Because they are built/tuned to half-way between, dual band antennas are a compromise and are not the best at either band, but they are a lot more convenient than carrying around two antennas!

Make sure that you're shopping antennas that match your radio's antenna connector, or that you also get appropriate adapters. Almost all handhelds use a SMA-Female (SMA-F) plug, requiring a SMA-Male (SMA-M) connector on the antenna.

Also, low-cost outlets like Temu and Wish have been caught selling counterfeit antennas, even entirely fake antennas that don't actually have metal inside them. Please buy from areal radio vendor and not Temu or eBay.

Connectors, Adapters, and Strain

Most handhelds have a SMA-F connector, and for external antennas the most common connector is Type N, so you will often need an adapter to connect to a non-handheld antenna in your car or at home or at a campsite.

Most adapters are a plug shape, a straight piece of metal maybe one inch long, with the connectors on either end. Problem is, these connectors can put strain on the antenna connector on your handheld, damaging it over time or damaging it more quickly if you drop it or trip over it.

I prefer adapters that have a length of thin, flexible cabling between the two ends. The flexibility lets you lay the cable down or even pass it through the radio's belt clip, taking the strain off of the connector.

Don't Let It Touch Metal...

Don't let the antenna touch metal, because the magnetic field's inductance can interfere with the signal both directions. To secure the antenna, use a non-metallic hook, string, Velcro cable tie, etc. and attach to a non-metallic surface.

The cable that connects the antenna to the radio (the "feed line") is insulated against interference, but not 100%. Ideally, the feed line also should not run along a metal pole if it can be avoided. The TN07 collapsible antenna mast is made of fiberglass, so does not cause interference.

I can tell you from experience that 1" PVC pipe is not suitable to make a low-cost antenna mast - past 10 feet in height, 1" PVC pipe won't support its own weight and will bend right over.

... Except for a Groundplane

Stick-shaped antennas require a ground plane or counterpoise to work well. This balances out the electrical field and greatly improves reception.

With handhelds, your hand on the radio acts as the counterpoise. You can set the radio on a table, and listen to the reception come and go as you move your hand onto it and off again (unless it's a very strong signal). Handhelds are meant to be held in the hand.

However, if you leave your radio on a shelf to listen, you can add a counterpoise wire (also called a tiger tail or rat tail) to your handheld antenna, simply by soldering a ring terminal to a length of wire, then threading your antenna through that hole. The antenna holds the ring in place with the ring touching the antenna's socket. The net effect is that your radio's connector has an antenna coming outt both ends, connected to the radio in the middle.

The appropriate length of wire for a handheld counterpoise is 19.5 inches for 2 meters (VHF) and 6.5 inches for 440 MHz (UHF).

With a car mounted antenna on a base, the car's metal chassis is the ground plane. The antenna's base is magnetically attached to the car chassis, and is close enough that the antenna's inductance still balances out the electrical field onto the chassis. If you were to remove that antenna from the car, it would not work well unless you attach it to another ground plane. A cookie sheet or a metal trash can lid can work as a ground plane, should you need to take your car antenna away and up a hill when trying to get reception.

J Pole antennas already have a counterpoise, since that is built into the J shape. The feed line atttaches at the bottom, and the J is formed by the larger antenna on one side and the counterpoise on the other.

Yagi Antenna

You've probably seen antennas that look like a metal rod, with a bunch of smaller metal rods running the length of it. Usually the croos-rods are larger at one end, and getting smaller toward the other end.

This is called a Yagi antenna (named for the inventor's boss).

They are directional, with much stronger reception and transmission in the "pointy" direction. This makes them very useful if you want to communicate in a specific direction, instead of all around.

For handheld applications this is not very useful, but portable Yagi antennas do exist for camping and POTA.

Frequencies and Wavelengths, Bands and Band Plans

This section is the fundamental stuff about radio frequencies, so it gets a bit technical. Still, these are some basics that I think are worth understanding.

Frequency and Wavelength

The Number 300. Light (and thus radio) travels at a constant 300 megameters per second, and we measure the frequency of these radio waves in mega-waves per second (megaherz). Metric being logical, this means that the wavelength times the number of waves per second, always multiply to 300.

In other words: Remember: MHz X meters = 300

Telling UHF or VHF at a glance:

  • Frequency 145.290. That's about half of 300, so call it 2 meters (VHF).
  • Frequency 434.245 is 70% of 300, so call it 70 centimeters (UHF).

HF, VHF, UHF, and So On

Radio wavelengths are broadly categorized as follows. There are a lot more than these: Low Frequency (LF), Very Low Frequency (VLF), Super High Frequency (SHF), Extreme High Frequency (EHF), and so on. But they are for the most part not relevant here.

  • HF, High Frequency. Radio frequencies from 3 to 30 MHz (100 meters to 10 meters wavelength). These frequencies bounce off the ionosphere and therefore can travel great distances, even circling the world with even moderate power. These frequencies are usable with a General class license and much more expensive gear than I focus on in this guide.
  • VHF, Very High Frequency. 30 to 300 MHz (10 meter to 1 meter wavelength). This includes the 2 meter band, usable by Technician class licenses. These do not bounce off the ionosphere except in some rare and lucky circumstances, and are effectively limited to the horizon.
  • UHF, Ultra High Frequency. 300 MHz to 3 GHz (1 meter to 10 centimeter wavelength). This includes the 70 centimeter band, usable by Technician class licenses. UHF also includes the 2.4 GHz spectrum, which is not relevant to ham radio but relevant to Wifi, Bluetooth, etc. These do not bounce off the ionosphere except in some rare and lucky circumstances, and are effectively limited to the horizon.

Why Should You Care About Wavelengths?

Longer (lower frequency) waves travel further, but shorter (higher frequency) waves bend tighter. Higher frequency (shorter) waves bend differently than lower frequency (longer) waves - that's why purple is the tighter inner bend of the rainbow and red is on the broader outer side. That goes for radio too - 70 centimeter tends to do a little better about bouncing and bending around tight spots, such as in the "shadow" of a hill or between buildings in a city. The longer waves such as 2 meter, tend to do better over long distance when there are not obstacles.

In fact, I said earlier that UHF and VHF are line of sight, only to the horizon, but that's not entirely true. Radio waves are longer than visible light waves, and they do bend slightly over the horizon. For UHF (70 centimeter) this doesn't count for a lot, but for VHF (2 meter) the difference is a few percent, often 1-2 miles beyond the visual horizon. From a hilltop the effect can be even more pronounced.

Lower frequency waves bounce off of the earth and the atmosphere. This is called "atmospheric propagation" or "skywave propagation" and means that low-frequency, long-length waves can bounce between the earth and the atmosphere, crossing thousands of miles and even circling the world. Higher frequencies do this a lot less.

Longer waves mean larger antennas. An antenna would ideally be the length of the wave (a 2-meter long antenna) but antennas can be one-half or one-quarter of that wavelength, to fit into the available space. Those giant antennas outside a ham's house aren't just for show - if they are sending/receiving at 10 meter wavelengths then even a quarter-wave antenna would be 2.5 meters long (over 8 feet). At the other end, Wi-Fi operates at 2.4 GHz frequencies, and a full-wave antenna is only an inch long.

Bands and Band Plans

Band

The word "band" is an inexact term to describe a range of frequencies that are being discussed or used together. For instance, when talking about the universe of radio frequencies from Wi-Fi to FM radio, one could refer broadly to "the VHF band." But when talking about specific VHF frequencies, the word "band" can refer to the specific range of VHF frequencies allowed for amateur radio. Think of "band" like the word "group" - not as a technical term, but as a contextual description of whatever we were talking about.

For Technician class licenses, you'll primarily use these bands:

  • 144.000 to 147.900 MHz = the 2 meter band (within the VHF band)
  • 420.000 MHz to 449.900 MHz = the 70 centimeter band (within the UHF band)

Channel Width

Radios are not perfect, and they do not transmit purely on one frequency. In the case of FM radio, that variance is intentionally used as the encoding mechanism (thus the "frequency modulation"). Technically there could be two conversations on 147.415 MHz and on 147.416 MHz but in reality they would both overlap so much that both conversations would be completely mixed together, because of that variance.

To accommodate this reality, people will intentionally choose frequencies that are spaced out from each other. In the case of FM voice, those chosen frequencies are usually 20 kHz (0.020 MHz) apart from each other (channel width).

But 20 kHz starting at what? Who is it that decides on those frequencies? That's called a band plan.

Band Plans

Each region, often a state, has an informal organization of how people will use the amateur radio frequencies, and this is called a band plan. Band plans are created and managed by volunteer organizations, and though they are not legally binding, when people program their radios and repeaters to use frequencies as intended, everybody gets along better.

In Oregon, the band plans are organized by ORRC, the Oregon Region Relay Council. At ORRC.org you can look up the suggested frequencies.

Example: The 2 meter band plan for Oregon

Visit https://www.orrc.org/Home/BandPlans/200 to see Oregon's 2-meter band plan, as put forth by ORRC.

  • 146.420 through 146.600 are intended for simplex channels, spaced 20 kHz apart. So you could chat on 146.420, 146.440, 146.460, 146.480, and so on, up through and including 146.600
  • 147.400 through 147.580, likewise are for simplex voice chat, and again in 20 kHz blocks: 147.400, 147.420, 147.440, 147.460, ...
  • 144.510 through 144.890 (+20 kHz, so 144.910) are set aside for repeaters, and 146.620 through 147.380 are also set aside for repeater outputs, so you should not use them for voice chats.
  • 144.390 is used for APRS, a type of telemetry, and never for voice chat, repeaters, etc.

Other Random Stuff

This section is a random stuff that's good to know, but which didn't warrant whole chapters.

Appendix: Websites of Interest

Appendix: Oregon

Statewide

Willamette Valley

Amateur Radio Clubs / ARES

Some Repeaters and Nets

Repeater Name/Callsign Frequency Offset Tone Description
W7OSU Adair Village Vineyard Mtn 147.160 +0.600 CTCSS 100 Benton County ARES
Lebanon W7VA 146.610 -0.600 CTCSS 167.9 East of Lebanon
Lebanon W0ULF 147.260 +0.600 DCS 26 Linn County ARES, Scott Mountain south of Lebanon
Corvallis Samaritan Hill 442.300 +5.000 CTCSS 162.2
K7CVO on Chatimanwi (Marys Peak) 146.780 -0.600 CTCSS 156.7 Benton County ARES
Prospect Hill W7SRA7 443.725 +5.000 CTCSS 186.2 Reaches Albany and Salem
Dallas 441.700 +5.000 CTCSS 186.2 Reaches Monmouth and Salem from ground level
WA7ABU "The 529" 145.290 -0.600 none Very active community
Net Name/Description When Repeater/Frequency
Western Oregon VHF Emergency Net (WOVEN) Nightly, 7:30pm K7CVO on Chatimanwi (Marys Peak)
Linn County ARES Net Mondays, 7pm Lebanon W0ULF
Benton County ARES Net Tuesdays, 7:45pm W7OSU Adair Village Vineyard Mtn
Linn Amateur Radio Club weekly round table Wednesdays, 7pm Lebanon W7VA
Salem CERT Net Sundays, 430pm 146.580 simplex
529 Nightly Nets Nightly 7pm, different topic each day of the week WA7ABU "The 529"
529 Lunch Bunch Daily 12 noon WA7ABU "The 529"
Amateur Radio Newsline Fridays, 730pm All Peak Radio Association repeaters
Anything Goes Open Net Fridays, 8pm All Peak Radio Association repeaters

Corvallis, Oregon

Corvallis is at 200 ft elevation, and to the north is a range of hills that block radio north toward Salem and Dallas from ground level.

Hospital Hill rises about 200 ft above the rest of town (400 ft elevation), making a significant barrier to much of south Corvallis and west Corvallis even reaching those northern hills. However, once on the hill, the hospital parking lot facing north has clear line to Salem including the 529 repeater and the Dallas repeater.

There is a repeater on Hospital Hill (see "Corvallis Samaritan Hill" above) which has line-of-sight and sufficient power to reach Salem, but it has little traffic. This may be because day-to-day traffic in Salem is largely focused on their own 529 repeater, and handheld radios do not have the power to reach from Salem back to Hospital Hill.

Chip Ross Hill rises to 800 ft elevation, again providing a significant barrier to radio communication in southwest Corvallis. From the parking lot of Chip Ross Park, though, even a handheld can reliably communicate with repeaters to the north, including the 529 and the ones on Prospect Hill.

To the south, Eugene is too far for to reach by low-power handheld. However, to the west, the K7CVO repeater on Chatimanwi (Marys Peak) has a wide reach which inclues Eugene, Newport, Kaiser, Adair Village, and Albany.

To the east, from a downtown rooftop or Hospital Hill a handheld can reach the Scott Mountain repeater used by Linn County ARES.

The Peak Radio Association (PRA) linked repeater network has repeaters in Junction City and Harrisburg, which then sends up and down the I-5 corridor. I have had good results talking on these PRA repeaters using a handheld.

Albany, Oregon

Albany is at 200 ft elevation, and has the Albany Hills to the north, though these taper down and end approximately where the two bridges connect Albany to North Albany. The Albany Hills block a northward line of sight toward Salem, until you reach the eastern side of downtown. From Lyon/Ellsworth Streets downtown, and further east, we have successfully used handhelds to talk via the Prospect Hill W7SRA7 70cm repeater (Prospect Hill is one of the Salem Hills, bounding Salem's south end), but if you walk a few blocks further west (any "SW" address) you fall into the shadow of the hills and communication stops.

Direct communication with Salem's 529 has proven intermittent and difficult. I can sometimes receive and sometimes not, and my handheld has insufficient power to send back.

I regularly check in on WOVEN via the K7CVO repeater on Chatimanwi (Marys Peak), which is 24 miles away. My handheld from ground level (in my house) can receive and send reasonably well, though the signal is weak and fickle, often requiring that I move the radio back and forth to look for better signal. From a 30-feet mast or from the roof of my house, the situation is much improved.

The Harrisburg repeater of the Peak Radio Association (PRA) linked repeater network works well in Albany, even from a handheld, allowing communication to a wider area upp and down the I-5 corridor.

To the east, my handheld can reach the Scott Mountain repeater used by Linn County ARES.

Appendix: Other Radio Bands and Modes

My own interest is in voice communication over FM transmission. But that's not all there is, not by a long shot! I'll briefly describe a few other ways to communicate via radio, but I won't go into detail - just be aware that they exist, and look into whatever catches your interest.